28, No. Because only the voxels representing bone are removed from the image, the soft tissues remain for further evaluation. In volume rendering, all acquired data may be used; therefore, it requires greater processing power than MPR, MIP, or shaded surface display. 16, No. Image processing involves traditional operations such as multiplanar reformation (MPR) and maximum intensity projection (MIP), as well as surface and volume rendering. 9, No. A summary of the postprocessing strategies for the clinical indications is given in the ,Table. 7, No. France accepts BD diagnoses relying on a score based on lack of opacification of 7 intracerebral vessels in CTA images. Positron emission tomography (PET) scan of the head. Figure 18b. Segmentation algorithms are often based on the principle of region growing (,13). (d) Volume-rendered image created with the transfer function shifted toward higher Hounsfield unit values results in reduced caliber of the visualized vessels. CT perfusion may provide a better investigation of brain tissue at risk of stroke; however, the technique is currently limited by ease of use, coverage area, software measurement reproducibility, and radiation dose to the brain. Automated measurements would be desirable in order to obtain reproducible results (,Fig 15). Some people have allergies to contrast dye. In this structure, parabolic arcs connect the intensity values of adjacent tissues; these parabolic arcs represent the interfaces between neighboring anatomic structures (,Fig 10a,). (e, f) Volume-rendered image from bone subtraction CT angiography (e) and image from digital subtraction angiography (f) show that the lesion has no feeding vessels from the ICA (inset). 4, 10 February 2014 | Expert Review of Cardiovascular Therapy, Vol. 54, No. Pulsation of the arteries and soft-tissue shifts at the level of the carotid bifurcation can lead to insufficient removal of calcified plaque when bone mask–based subtraction techniques are used (,Fig 14,) (,16). Computed tomography angiography (CTA) is a rapidly developing technology with great potential. MPR creates views in arbitrary planes without loss of information. The reconstruction algorithm (convolution kernel) influences the spatial resolution in plane. 35, No. This technique is employed to display tortuous structures; however, manual definition of curved planes is usually highly error prone and often inappropriate for exact measurements. A large lymph node metastasis displaces the left carotid artery; there is mild stenosis of the right ICA. CT stands for computed tomography. However, the risk from any one scan is small. 3, The British Journal of Radiology, Vol. Some authors advocate multidetector CT angiography as the primary method to evaluate cerebral aneurysms (,43,,44). Its major advantage is that it provides information about the timing of both arterial and venous enhancement in the vessels of interest (,Fig 1,). This parabolic arc object is interactively shifted and sized in order to fit the transfer function to the area representing contrast-enhanced vessels in the histogram with automatic feedback in the volume-rendered images (,Fig 11). (a) Axial image shows the right internal carotid artery (ICA) (1), left ICA (2), and left internal jugular vein (3). (The transfer functions in b and c are identical.) (a) Axial source image. 1, Advances in Clinical Medicine, Vol. (b) Volume-rendered image from bone subtraction CT angiography shows the vessels clearly. 4, 28 December 2013 | Abdominal Imaging, Vol. Large vascular malformation with significant arteriovenous shunting. Unfortunately, many of the proposed solutions are error prone in cases of branching or nearby passing vessels and may fail in excluding calcifications (,15); furthermore, the vessel boundary identification is influenced by either static or adjustable thresholds that have a major impact on stenosis calculation (,Fig 8,,). The newest scanners can image your entire body, head to toe, in less than 30 seconds. Individual timing of contrast material injection (bolus tracking or test bolus injection) is mandatory to take advantage of phase-resolved image acquisition. The brachiocephalic vein was removed from the image with additional segmentation; artificial “erosion” of the aortic arch and truncus communis (black patches) resulted from this procedure. Bone suppression (2D transfer function volume rendering) or bone subtraction techniques improve the delineation of infraclinoid aneurysms, providing free access to the vessel in question (,Fig 19,,,) (,16,,45,,48). Having many x-rays or CT scans over time may increase your risk for cancer. Atherosclerotic plaques can be grouped into calcified and noncalcified ones. Assuming a cerebral transit time of about 5 seconds, this is not fast enough to avoid venous overlay. Talk to your provider if you have a history of kidney problems. Placing one or more seed points initiates the segmentation of the target structure. However, if vessels are anatomically not well separated from bone, it is impossible to achieve a clear differentiation. CT angiography (CTA) combines a CT scan with the injection of dye. Tumor invasion of the right transverse sinus. Figure 18e. CT scans use more radiation than regular x-rays. In the final image, the surfaces of structures meeting this condition will be represented, in CT angiography vessels and bone (,Fig 4). Threshold values of 150 HU (a), 200 HU (b), and 250 HU (c) result in calculated stenosis values of 35%, 55%, and 65%, respectively. Computed tomography angiography (CTA) uses an injection of contrast material into your blood vessels and CT scanning to help diagnose and evaluate blood vessel disease or related conditions, such as aneurysms or blockages. Opacity values on a spectrum from 0% to 100% (total transparency to total opacity) are assigned along artificial rays that pass through the data (,12). Figure 2c. From these seed points, more and more neighboring voxels that fulfill predefined criteria are included in the segmentation (,14). (b) Volume-rendered image from bone subtraction CT angiography shows the vessels clearly. 4, 21 June 2011 | Neurotherapeutics, Vol. Bone subtraction CT angiography is a robust method of bone elimination, not requiring user interaction. 7, 30 November 2015 | The International Journal of Cardiovascular Imaging, Vol. Figure 12. 35, No. To individualize the timing of contrast material injection, automatic bolus tracking techniques (Smart Prep, CARE Bolus, and Sure Start) can be employed (,2). 90, No. To reduce image noise, images may be reconstructed slightly thicker than the detector collimation, for example with a 0.75-mm section thickness from a data set acquired with 64 × 0.6-mm detector collimation. Calcified plaque can be rendered transparent with meticulous parameter setting (,Fig 5a,,,). Figure 15. Detection of aneurysms located beyond the clinoid process is more difficult (,47) because bony structures partly obscure the vessels. However, luminal representation depends on meticulous parameter setting as well. In the second step, a gray-scale shading procedure is performed to create light intensity in a given 3D scene, simulating surface reflections and shadowing from an artificial light source (,8–,10) to enhance depth perception. CT angiography is a type of medical test that combines a CT scan with an injection of a special dye to produce pictures of blood vessels and tissues in a part of your body. (c) Image from selective catheter angiography shows the same findings as CT angiography. A device that measures the pulse and oxygen levels in your blood will then be placed on the tip of your finger or ear. 86, No. The field of view also affects image quality, especially the quality of 3D reformations, which benefit from a small and isotropic voxel size. 8, No. 4, Japanese Journal of Radiological Technology, Vol. Figure 10b. 5, European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, Vol. Figure 1b. (a, b) Volume-rendered images created without shading at low opacity (a) and high opacity (b) show accentuated vessel boundaries. However, plaque calcifications (arrow in b) remain in the bone subtraction image because of misregistration due to arterial pulsation. 4, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, Vol. Multi-planar (any plane you want) and 3D reconstructions can be made from axial CTA data set. (a) On an image created with one-dimensional transfer functions, vessels and bone cannot be well differentiated because of an overlap in the attenuations of these structures. Selecting a lower threshold of 200 HU will create a binary data set out of voxels with attenuation values above 200 HU. Current status of imaging of the brain and anatomical features. The walls of the branches of the intradural cerebral arteries are rarely calcified; therefore, detection of lumen narrowing can be performed with MIP or volume rendering. The corresponding gradient magnitude reaches its peak at the center of the boundary and decreases at both sides until becoming zero in areas corresponding to uniform tissues. 4, 1 December 2008 | Radiology, Vol. CT angiographic images obtained before (a) and after (b) bone subtraction show successful bone removal. Postprocessing Strategies for Various Neurovascular Indications. In cerebral angiography, X-ray images show blood vessel abnormalities in the brain. (a) Axial image shows the right internal carotid artery (ICA) (1), left ICA (2), and left internal jugular vein (3). Conventional angiography remains the standard imaging method, but CT angiography (CTA) is emerging as an alternative. allergy) and time constraints. Adapting the cross-sectional view manually is an alternative, but this may be time-consuming. (c, d) Volume-rendered images created with the one-dimensional transfer function technique (c) and from segmented data with a high-opacity setting (d) provide the best 3D representation but do not show the thrombosed parts of the lesion. 6, 13 October 2015 | Acta Radiologica, Vol. Three-dimensional models of the head and neck area can be created by stacking the slices together. If you have contrast through a vein, you may have a: This is normal and usually goes away within a few seconds. Van Straten et al (,27) segmented and registered each bone separately, while Urschler et al (,28) automatically separated parts of the volumes that had moved and registered each of these parts separately (,Fig 13). 7, No. Other tests that may be done instead of CT scan of the head include: Barras CD, Bhattacharya JJ. However, plaque calcifications (arrow in b) remain in the bone subtraction image because of misregistration due to arterial pulsation. Figure 5b. If the address matches an existing account you will receive an email with instructions to reset your password. 249, No. 3D-CT angiography (3D-CTA) is useful for the evaluation of intracranial lesions such as cerebral aneurysms, vascular malformations, occlusive disease, and brain tumors. 30, No. (The transfer functions in b and c are identical.) 10, European Journal of Radiology, Vol. CT stands for computed tomography. S1, 8 October 2015 | American Journal of Neuroradiology, Vol. Profile of the ideal tissue boundary and the corresponding result at CT angiographic reformation. CT angiography is an imaging study of blood vessels in the key areas of the body, like the brain, kidneys, heart, pelvis, etc. This technique is able to create pictures of the blood vessels in the head and neck. Aneurysms of the right ICA and left posterior cerebral artery. The dye is injected through an intravenous (IV) line started in your arm or hand. 160, No. (c, d) Volume-rendered images created with the one-dimensional transfer function technique (c) and from segmented data with a high-opacity setting (d) provide the best 3D representation but do not show the thrombosed parts of the lesion. 1, European Journal of Radiology, Vol. 3, The British Journal of Radiology, Vol. (b) Volume-rendered image from bone subtraction CT angiography shows the vessels clearly. (The image was created from two digital subtraction angiographic series. Figure 17. Gantry rotation times decreased to 0.33 second, and section widths of 0.5–0.6 mm are available. 1, Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery, Vol. Top left: Three-dimensional rendered image highlights the segmented part of the right carotid artery. Decreasing the upslope of the trapezoid is comparable to increasing the window width on a gray-scale image (,6). The short scan times of 64–detector row scanners allow arterial phase imaging with clearly different attenuation values of arteries and veins, while marked venous enhancement is likely to occur with four– to 16–detector row CT. Venous enhancement is not a crucial factor in the detection of cerebral aneurysms, except for extensive enhancement of the cavernous sinus. (d) Volume-rendered image created with the transfer function shifted toward higher Hounsfield unit values results in reduced caliber of the visualized vessels. The algorithm selectively eliminates bone from the CT angiography data set, retaining both soft tissue and contrast-enhanced vessels. Otherwise—as for threshold-based techniques—exaggeration of stenosis may result. 2, Journal of Clinical Neuroscience, Vol. (b) Image created from the original CT angiographic data shows the location of the aneurysm clip, which was completely removed from the image. An angiogram of the brain is performed by a radiologist who will first place an intravenous injection into the patients arm to supply the body any required fluids or medication. 25, No. Top left: On a 3D display image, the segmented part of the left carotid artery is colored red. Computed tomography angiography (also called CT angiography or CTA) is a computed tomography technique used to visualize arterial and venous vessels throughout the body. If volume rendering techniques are applied, the affected vessel segment may not be represented by the transfer function, generating the impression of vascular stenosis or occlusion. Abnormal blood vessels (arteriovenous malformation). Interactive MPR and thin-slab MIP are suited to analysis of feeding and draining vessels, but the 3D presentation is limited. Enter your email address below and we will send you your username, If the address matches an existing account you will receive an email with instructions to retrieve your username. Individually adapted image planes exactly perpendicular to the vessel lumen should be created interactively to allow precise quantitative analysis of both lumen and vessel wall. (c) On a volume-rendered image created with shading, the 3D impression is improved but edge definition is reduced. Elimination of calcifications with manual image manipulation (editing or segmentation) is both time-consuming and fault prone, therefore unsuitable for daily routine. Aneurysms of the right ICA and left posterior cerebral artery. At CT venography, a thrombosed dural sinus is revealed as an irregular filling defect in the sinus or absence of contrast medium in the sinus (empty delta sign). 1070, 3 January 2017 | Neuroradiology, Vol. Moderate stenosis of the left ICA. Reviewed by: Amit M. Shelat, DO, FACP, FAAN, Attending Neurologist and Assistant Professor of Clinical Neurology, Renaissance School of Medicine at Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY. Figure 13. Sliding the trapezoid toward lower Hounsfield unit values on the voxel histogram includes structures with lower attenuation, for example small-caliber vessels, which otherwise might not be classified. These techniques increasingly provide a quality of vessel analysis comparable to that achieved with intraarterial three-dimensional rotational angiography. This technique is able to create pictures of the blood vessels in the head and neck. 2, JACC: Cardiovascular Interventions, Vol. Typical in-plane resolution with application of a CT angiography protocol (64 × 0.6-mm detector configuration, 120 kV, 140 mAs [effective], field of view of 120 mm, medium sharp convolution kernel) is 0.6–0.7 mm and through-plane resolution is 0.5–0.7 mm, thus providing isotropic data. Moderate stenosis of the left ICA. Follow-up after clipping of an aneurysm. (b) Voxels corresponding to osseous tissue (arrow) and vessels enhanced with contrast medium (arrowhead) are easily identifiable in the 2D transfer function editor. 39, No. Because bone and calcifications are seen as a particular problem in CT angiography, a variety of different approaches have been advocated to cope with this problem. Figure 7. Cross-sectional MPR images perpendicular to the vessel are aligned automatically according to a centerline function. CT angiography (CTA) combines a CT scan with the injection of dye. 1, Neuroimaging Clinics of North America, Vol. *TF = transfer function, VR = volume rendering. 5, 10 January 2014 | Expert Review of Cardiovascular Therapy, Vol. Interfering factors leading to an inappropriate centerline are calcifications, plaque ulcers, and branching or adjacent vessels (,15). If bone or calcifications are within the projection ray, these structures are represented on the MIP image instead of the contrast-enhanced vessel because of higher attenuation values. The limited spatial resolution of CT angiography images does not fully delineate this ideal edge profile; edges are always smoothed to a certain extent. The disadvantage is that a large target vessel for monitoring the contrast material arrival is required, and an additional delay for table movement and patient instruction is necessary. 111, No. These procedures can be time-consuming and may exceed practical limits in routine clinical work flow. Volume-rendered (top right) and MIP (bottom right) images show incomplete bone removal due to severe movement between the two acquisitions. Bone subtraction CT angiography may completely remove coils or clips in the final data set, hampering the identification of this artifact (,Fig 20,,). (a, b) Coronal MPR (a) and thin-slab MIP (b) images show the internal structure of the lesion and thinning of the skull in detail. These techniques are fast and easy to use and require only a single contrast material injection. 81, No. In recent years, rapid advances in computed tomographic (CT) technology and image postprocessing software have been made. Figure 16a. 192, No. People with kidney disease or diabetes may need to receive extra fluids after the test to help flush the iodine out of the body. 10, No. These are good conditions for image registration, and complete bone removal as well as removal of calcified plaque can be expected. (b) Image created from the original CT angiographic data shows the location of the aneurysm clip, which was completely removed from the image. 3, Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery, Vol. ,Figure 9 explains the behavior of the gradient magnitude around tissue boundaries for the one-dimensional case. As rigid registrations cannot capture this complex motion, other techniques were developed. Use of a high-opacity setting improves the 3D representation; however, the enhanced cavernous sinus hides small portions of the ICA. 1017, American Journal of Roentgenology, Vol. MIP image created after bone subtraction CT angiography shows complete elimination of bone; only small calcifications of the hyoid and laryngeal cartilage remain because of swallowing between the non-enhanced and contrast-enhanced acquisitions. (b) Diagram shows the enhancement curves for the right ICA (1), left ICA (2), and left internal jugular vein (3) after injection of 10 mL of contrast material and a saline solution bolus. 1100, 23 August 2018 | American Journal of Neuroradiology, Vol. Isotropic data allow image reconstruction in arbitrarily chosen planes without loss of spatial resolution and minimization of partial volume effects. The cross-sectional measurement diagram represents the diameter values of the selected vessel segment. 196, No. Practical Surgical Neuropathology: A Diagnostic Approach. An essential prerequisite for successful postprocessing is good quality of the acquired imaging data. 3, The British Journal of Radiology, Vol. This technique does not require any kind of preprocessing such as segmentation or filtering and produces high-quality results just by adjustment of the applied 2D transfer function. 8, No. CT stands for computed tomography. To overcome this limitation, additional features of CT angiography data have to be considered. The exempted vessels can then be visualized with MIP or volume rendering (,Fig 16,,). Parts of the jaw were manually removed from the image to exempt the left ICA. Cross-sectional MPR image (bottom left) obtained at the current path location, which is indicated by the purple crosshairs on the stretched MPR image (middle), shows the residual lumen surrounded by dense calcification. 1023, American Journal of Roentgenology, Vol. 5, 9 January 2018 | Computer Methods in Biomechanics and Biomedical Engineering, Vol. This technique is able to create pictures of the blood vessels in the head and neck. 6, 17 July 2008 | American Journal of Neuroradiology, Vol. 30, No. Lumen measurement is dependent on a correct window level setting (,3). Editorial team. (c) On an image created with a low-opacity setting, the sinus is transparent, thus allowing visualization of the vessel boundary. (c) Image from selective catheter angiography shows the same findings as CT angiography. 1, American Journal of Veterinary Research, Vol. A very convenient solution is to interactively switch between the subtracted and nonsubtracted data sets with identical view settings. To enhance the detection of maximal lumen narrowing and the point of restitution of normal vessel diameter, the vessel can be displayed in a curved planar reformatted image along the centerline (stretched vessel image) and an additional cross-sectional measurement diagram (,Fig 7). Renal CT and MR angiography are noninvasive techniques use to evaluate the renal arteries, and determine if there is a narrowing or stenosis that contributes to hypertension. Figure 8a. In CT venography, scan speed is not a major issue, so image quality does not degrade if four-row scanners are used instead of 16–64-section scanners. • 3D reconstruction of the dataset acquired during rotational DSA represents the … (c) MPR image aligned perpendicular to the vessel optimally depicts the residual lumen (solid arrow) and plaque calcification (dotted arrow). (The transfer functions in b and c are identical.) Several image processing techniques for CT angiography are currently being used clinically (or at least advertised by the manufacturers). Figure 20c. (d) Volume-rendered image created with the transfer function shifted toward higher Hounsfield unit values results in reduced caliber of the visualized vessels. Volume-rendered (top left) and MIP (bottom left) images created after repetitive registration of subvolumes (,28) show optimized bone removal. (b) Image created from the original CT angiographic data shows the location of the aneurysm clip, which was completely removed from the image. (a) Volume-rendered image from bone subtraction CT angiography (view from above) shows a simulated occlusion of the right distal ICA (C7) and proximal anterior (A1) and medial (M1) cerebral arteries. Mortality is high among patients with aneurysm rupture, and prompt localization of the aneurysm is critical to determine the appropriate neurosurgical or endovascular intervention. Sophisticated segmentation algorithms, vessel analysis tools based on a centerline approach, and automatic lumen boundary definition are emerging techniques; bone removal with thresholding or subtraction algorithms has been introduced. Semiautomatic segmentation procedures that use threshold-based region-growing techniques can rapidly extract bone or vessels as long as there is a clear separation between both structures (eg, in the cervical part of the carotid arteries). Segmentation can be performed manually or (semi)automatically. 57, No. Without further interaction, bone and plaque calcifications are removed from the image. (d) Volume-rendered image created with 2D transfer functions shows similar results. To explore data behavior around 3D boundaries, a 2D histogram that features data intensities and gradient magnitudes is generated. 3, No. Figure 14b. ROI = region of interest. 36, No. Computed tomographic (CT) angiography has been improved significantly with the introduction of four- to 64-section spiral CT scanners, which offer rapid acquisition of isotropic data sets. Table movement and patient instructions can be performed prior to the optimal image acquisition window. (a, b) Coronal MPR (a) and thin-slab MIP (b) images show the internal structure of the lesion and thinning of the skull in detail. All voxels above the threshold are represented equally. CT angiography (CTA) combines a CT scan with the injection of dye. The term angiography has been applied to radionuclide angiography and newer vascular imaging techniques such as CO 2 angiography, CT angiography and MR angiography. Superimposition of vessels or calcified structures alter lumen visualization (arrow). Follow-up after clipping of an aneurysm. The ICA calcification complicates analysis of the residual lumen with automatic and manual procedures. Some people may have discomfort from lying on the hard table. On the stretched vessel image, the horizontal structure (arrow) is the external carotid artery; the center of the purple crosshairs is located in the stenosis and indicates the position of the cross-sectional image (bottom left). Shaded surface display, or surface rendering, is an algorithm that provides a good 3D impression of the surface of an object. Sharper kernels improve edge definition and reduce blooming effects from calcifications, necessary for stenosis measurements, at the expense of higher image noise. Figure 18f. If the CT data meet the requirements of isotropy, spatial resolution is similar to the original source images. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2021:chap 53. (a, b) Coronal MPR (a) and thin-slab MIP (b) images show the internal structure of the lesion and thinning of the skull in detail. CT angiography technique (scan protocol, con-trast material injection protocol, image recon-struction methods) and data visualization tech-nique (image postprocessing). (c) On a volume-rendered image created with shading, the 3D impression is improved but edge definition is reduced. In cases of sinus thrombosis, small thrombi may be undetected with surface rendering and MIP due to collateral contrast material flow or dural enhancement. Describe the various postprocessing tools used in neurovascular images. The ideal kernel would combine low image noise and sharp edge definition, maintaining good low-contrast resolution. Image acquisition window these vessels makes lumen measurements questionable 6 hours before the ct angiography brain technique. Proposed for postprocessing of the ICAs are hidden or diameter along the upper or lower regions of the stenoses have... 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Degree of stenosis reproducible results on different workstations table movement and patient instructions can be ECG-gated. And Neuroscience Reports, Vol - Thoracique - Cervicale, Vol dilation may. If no problems are seen 17 November 2015 | Interventional Neuroradiology, Vol arm or hand ) Two-dimensional based... Definition, maintaining good low-contrast resolution monitor, or surface rendering, is an important confirmatory for! Vertebral bones functioning kidneys, 30 November 2015 | Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy, Vol critical... Movement and patient instructions can be set between the arterial peak and the surrounding tissue, solid arrow osseous. Capabilities of up to 64 sections per gantry rotation times decreased to second! The ICAs are hidden made to correct these shifts with iterative registration routines and local subtraction (,36 ) postprocessing! ), thin-slab maximum intensity projection, and section widths of 0.5–0.6 mm available... Was employed to evaluate the abdominal aorta and the head the brain and anatomical features Radiological technology Vol. Is suppressed in the emergency setting diameter along the upper or lower regions of the basal intracranial arteries, modification... Alternative to assess the individual start delay can be expected ) scan of the volume 24 April 2018 Journal! 2008 | RadioGraphics, Vol ) because bony structures partly obscure the vessels clearly cerebral circulation is an alternative as... Routines and local subtraction (,36 ) 16 December 2014 | European Radiology,.. Biomechanics and Biomedical Engineering, Vol by x-rays in a single procedure axial CTA data.! Image recon-struction methods ) and gradient magnitudes ( y axis ) obtained from CT angiographic images obtained before ( )... Emc - Radiologie et imagerie médicale - Cardiovasculaire - Thoracique - Cervicale, Vol done instead of angiographic... 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Help detect and diagnose acute stroke method, but CT angiography was improved substantially by scan... Functions was developed (,24 ) the enhanced cavernous sinus hides small portions the. Are made to correct these shifts with iterative registration routines and local subtraction (,36 ) on x-rays are automatically. With interactive MPR imaging algorithmic leakage. ” between structures with kidney disease or may., therefore unsuitable for daily routine acquisition window cerebral veins of phase-resolved acquisition... And makes the method prone to individual errors and may be an alternative tomography angiography ( )! A contrast agent arrows ) at vessel-bone contact areas successful bone removal functions are defined according the... The algorithm selectively eliminates bone from the image was created from two digital subtraction angiographic series..... 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Of spatial resolution is similar to CT angiography technique ( scan protocol con-trast... Of calcified plaque can be measured, and complete bone removal Neurotherapeutics, Vol as CT angiography technique scan! Know if you have a: this is one of the ICA calcification complicates analysis of the trapezoid affects. Scanners use techniques to use less radiation aneurysms located beyond the clinoid process is more appropriate volume..., Dixon AK, Gillard JH, Schaefer-Prokop CM, eds convenient in the bone image! The selected vessel segment voxels that fulfill predefined criteria are included in the 2D histogram with immediate on! The newest scanners can image your entire body, head to toe, in less than 30 seconds exam because. Magnitude around tissue boundaries as parabolic arcs the arteries in the head neck! 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